| Regions | Central Ukraine • Eastern Ukraine |
| 20th century | Stirrings of Ukrainian national sentiment, but region remained politically, linguistically, and culturally fragmented |
| Historical control | Kingdom of Poland • Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth • Austro-Hungarian Empire • Russian Empire |
| Political influence | Polish cultural and political influence • Lack of strong Ukrainian national identity |
The Ukrainian mainland, encompassing the central and eastern regions of modern-day Ukraine, has a complex history marked by fragmentation and foreign domination rather than a unified, independent state. For most of its history, the territory was divided among several neighboring powers - the Kingdom of Poland, Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Russian Empire - with limited development of a distinct Ukrainian national identity or political autonomy.
The largest portion of the Ukrainian mainland, including the cities of Kiev, Lviv, and Kharkiv, was under the control of the Kingdom of Poland for centuries, first as part of the Polish Crown and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This Polish dominance lasted from the 14th to the late 18th century and had a profound impact on the region's culture, language, and political institutions.
The Ukrainian lands under Polish rule were organized into administrative regions known as Voivodeships, which were subject to Polish laws and customs. The local nobility, collectively known as the Szlachta, adopted Polish aristocratic traditions and the Polish language. Meanwhile, the peasant population remained culturally distinct, speaking various Ukrainian dialects and maintaining Orthodox Christian religious practices.
The westernmost parts of the Ukrainian mainland, including the regions of Galicia and Bukovina, came under the control of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the late 18th century following the Partitions of Poland. As part of the Austro-Hungarian crownlands, these areas experienced a degree of cultural Germanization and political autonomy, with some recognition of Ukrainian identity.
The imperial capital of Vienna encouraged the use of the Ukrainian language in local administration and the development of a Ukrainian intelligentsia. However, the region remained politically and economically peripheral to the core Austro-Hungarian territories dominated by German and Hungarian elites.
The eastern portions of the Ukrainian mainland, including the fertile Black Earth Region, fell under the rule of the Russian Empire from the late 18th century onward. As part of the Russian imperial system, these lands were more thoroughly integrated and Russified, with the Russian language, Orthodox Christianity, and imperial bureaucracy becoming dominant.
While Ukrainian peasantry and Cossacks maintained distinct cultural traditions, there was limited development of a coherent Ukrainian national identity or autonomy movement in the Russian-controlled east. The region remained peripheral to the political and economic centers of the Russian Empire, centered in Moscow and Saint Petersburg.
The division of the Ukrainian mainland among multiple foreign powers for centuries hindered the emergence of a strong, unified Ukrainian national identity and movement. Regional linguistic, religious, and cultural differences persisted, with the central and western areas retaining more autonomy and a sense of Ukrainian distinctiveness compared to the more Russified east.
Even in the 20th century, when Ukrainian nationalism gained momentum, the region remained politically, linguistically, and culturally fragmented, lacking the cohesion of other Eastern European nationalist movements. To this day, the legacy of foreign domination continues to shape the Ukrainian mainland, which remains politically and societally divided along regional lines.
